Rabu, 24 November 2010
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim,
Assalamu’alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakaatuhu.
Sekedar berbagi dengan ikhwanul mislimin tentang kelebihan perpustakaan digital dibandingkan perpustakaan biasa.
Allah Ta’alaa telah berfirman :
“ Dan janganlah kamu mengikuti apa yang kamu tidak mempunyai ilmu tentangnya. Sesungguhnya pendengaran, penglihatan dan hati, semuanya itu akan diminta pertanggungan jawabnya “. (Al-Israa’ : 36)
” Kami tiada mengutus Rasul Rasul sebelum kamu (Muhammad), melainkan beberapa orang-laki-laki yang kami beri wahyu kepada mereka, Maka tanyakanlah olehmu kepada orang-orang yang berilmu, jika kamu tiada Mengetahui “. (Al-Anbiyaa : 7)
Nabi Shallallahu’alaihi wasallam bersabda :
” Sesungguhnya ulama’ adalah pewaris para Nabi, dan … akan tetapi mereka para Nabi itu hanyalah mewariskan ilmu, maka barang siapa telah mengambilnya niscaya dia telah mendapat nasib kemenangan yang besar “. (Al-Hadits)
Syeikh Shaleh Alus-Syeikh telah berkata :
” Jadilah engkau selalu bersama para ulama’, baik mereka masih hidup atau mereka telah meninggal dunia (dengan melalui kitab-kitab tulisan mereka “.
Dengan pertolongan Allah Ta’laa semata, melalui “Maktabah Pribadi” kami telah berhasil mengumpulkan warisan ilmu islam dari Nabi shallallahu’alaihi wa sallam, yang menjadi satu-satunya wasilah untuk mengembalikan umat dari kehinaan, yang dipelihara oleh Allah dengan terus adanya para pewarisnya yang amanah sepanjang masa sampai datangnya hari ahir, dalam bentuk media Perpustakaan Digital dalam bentuk Flash Dish 1 GB Atau 2 GB Atau 4 GB dan Plus Anti Virus Komputer Anda AVG dengan harga hanya 160 rb rupiah
Dalam pepatah arab mengatakan:
“Artinya Cobalah dan perhatikanlah, niscaya kamu akan mengetahuinya”
Kehadiran media perpustakaan bagi dunia ilmiyah merupakan tuntutan yang mutlak, sebab dari sana sandaran ilmiyah akan dapat diketahui dengan jelas keabsahannya, sehingga ilmu yang akan diaplikasikan dan diamalkan akan benar-benar membawa hasil dan perbaikan secara nyata, karna telah bersih dari kepalsuan, kedustaan, kesalahfahaman dan noda-noda ilmiyah yang lain. Lebih-lebih di dalam ilmu islam, dimana saat ini banyak kotoran dan noda-noda ilmu itu telah melekat kuat padanya, bahkan ini yang dianggap sebagai ilmu islam oleh mayoritas umat islam, sampaipun oleh mereka yang disandarkan dan menyandarkan diri sebagai ahli ilmu dan nara sumber ilmu islam.
Mewujudkan media perpustakaan yang cukup untuk saat ini bukanlah perkara yang mudah, khususnya dalam masalah dana pengadaan dan pemeliharaan, akan dapat mencapai biaya milyaran rupiah.
Melalui Perpustakaan Digital “PRIBADI”, kami mengajak kaum muslimien khususnya para pelaku ilmiyah umumnya untuk “ta’aawanu ‘alal birri wat taqwa” menuju keridlaan Allah Ta’ala dan meraih keselamatan serta kemenangan dari-Nya.
Dengan media laptop KAMI muat rujukan ilmu-ilmu islam dari karya ilmiyah para ulama’ sunnah, baik dalam bentuk kitabiyah/ buku (book) berupa tulisan word, pdf, aplikasi dll, bentuk shauthiyah/ suara (audio), dan bentuk mar’iyyah (video) Bekerja sama dengan Semarang.
Besarnya nilai nikmat dari kemudahan maktabah ini, dapat kita bandingkan ketika kitab cetekan Fathul Bariy syarah Shahieh Bukhariy dengan puluhan jilid dan harga Rp 1.000.000,- lebih, hanya sebesar sekitar 15 MB dengan nilai seharga beberapa ribu rupiah saja. Dan dengan system computer sangat mudah dalam melakukan pembahasan dan penelitian sumber ilmiyah tersebut. Semoga kita dapat mensyukuri nikmat Allah ini dengan sebenar-benar.
Maka melalui perpustakaan digital ini kami akan memberi pelayanan kepada umat islam umumnya dan para pelaku ilmiyah islam khususnya, dengan beberapa hal dan ketentuan sebagai berikut :
Bentuk Pelayanan :
Ø Pemanfaatan Perpustakaan Digital “PRIBADI” Banjarmasin
Ø Pembuatan Perpustakaan Digital bagi pribadi ataupun lembaga islam baik menggunakan laptop atau pc.
Ø Penggandaan data/ materi Maktabah PRIBADI untuk kebutuhan pribadi atau lembaga islam.
Ø Penterjemahan dan pencetakan data/ materi ilmu Islam, baik berupa tulisan, suara ataupun video.
Ø Pencarian dan pembahasan data ilmiyah Islamiyah.
Cara Order Barang:
Via Telpon: +6285796627449 atau SMS (Maktabah/Nama/Alamat Lengkap/Kode Pos/Nomor HP.
Dengan pertolongan Allah Ta’laa semata, alhamdulillah melalui “Maktabah PRIBADI Banjarmasin” kami telah berhasil mengumpulkan warisan ilmu islam dari Nabi shallallahu’alaihi wa sallam, yang menjadi satu-satunya wasilah untuk mengembalikan umat dari kehinaan, yang dipelihara oleh Allah dengan terus adanya para pewarisnya yang amanah sepanjang masa sampai datangnya hari ahir, dalam bentuk media dengan bekerja sama dengan semarang.
Kehadiran media perpustakaan bagi dunia ilmiyah merupakan tuntutan yang mutlak, sebab dari sana sandaran ilmiyah akan dapat diketahui dengan jelas keabsahannya, sehingga ilmu yang akan diaplikasikan dan diamalkan akan benar-benar membawa hasil dan perbaikan secara nyata, karna telah bersih dari kepalsuan, kedustaan, kesalahfahaman dan noda-noda ilmiyah yang lain. Lebih-lebih di dalam ilmu islam, dimana saat ini banyak kotoran dan noda-noda ilmu itu telah melekat kuat padanya, bahkan ini yang dianggap sebagai ilmu islam oleh mayoritas umat islam, sampaipun oleh mereka yang disandarkan dan menyandarkan diri sebagai ahli ilmu dan nara sumber ilmu islam.
Mewujudkan media perpustakaan yang cukup untuk saat ini bukanlah perkara yang mudah, khususnya dalam masalah dana pengadaan dan pemeliharaan, akan dapat mencapai biaya milyaran rupiah.
Penutup :
Semoga dengan media ilmu ini kita dapat meraih warisan islam yang berharga dengan benar, sehingga hati-hati kita dan akal-akal kita dapat bertemu kembali di jalan Allah dan dengan ijin Allah.
Semoga dengan media ilmu ini, kita dapat membuka mata hati kita untuk melihat keadaan kita dengan jujur, kemudian kita senantiasa rela untuk memperbaiki kekurangan- kekurangan diri kita dengan lapang hati, dengan taufiq dari Allah Ta’laa.
Semoga kita dapat mensukuri ni’mat hidayah Islam secara benar dengan senantiasa bersungguh-sungguh untuk mempelajari Islam dan mengamalkannya.
Somoga maktabah ini menjadi amal yang saleh yang diterima di sisi Allah Ta’ala, dan bermanfaat bagi umat islam dan para penuntut ilmu dan para da’I ilaallah.
DENGAN MOTTO “ HARAM MENGGANDAKAN TANPA REKOMENDASI DARI PABRIK” dengan harga sesuai apa adanya.
Banjarmasin, 18 Dzul Hijjah 1431 H / 25 November 2010 M
Perpustakaan Digital Pribadi
RIDHANI
Banjarmasin
Minggu, 21 November 2010
Sabtu, 06 November 2010
Beli AVG Anti Virus dan Smadav Rev. 8.3 di Kota Banjarmasin
Hubungi Kontak Kami Di SMS 081351464435 dgn Format SMS
AVG/Nama/Nama Perusahaan/Nomor Telpon.
Aktifkan Registrasi Smadav Anda Dengan Menghubungi
Kontak Kami Di SMS 081351464435 dgn Format SMS
Smadav/Nama/Nama Perusahaan/Nomor Telpon.
Kirimkan Uangnya Setelah Konfirmasi Dari Kami dan Kami Akan Kirimkan Anda AVGnya ketempat.
No Rekening Kami: 2037006689 atas nama ridhani
Jumat, 05 November 2010
CITA CITA RIDHANI
Kenalkan Namaku Ridhani....
Q bercita cita ingiin sekali menjadi orang yang serba bisa...
namun...
kekurangan yang ku miliki tak bisa ditutupi
dan manusia adalah tempat kekurangan terkecuali allah...
allah yang menciptakan kita...
maka ku meminta kepadanya.... amien yaa rabbal 'alamin.
Konon keahlian yang ku miliki ini adalah berdasar atas pengalaman dan ilmu yang sedikit,,, namun bermanfaat... dan dapat dimanfaatkan.
Q pasrahkan diri ku tuk mu yaa allah...
Q berusaha dan kau yang menentukan...
Ingin minta diajari tentang komputer, microsoft word dan execel silakan kontak saya di alamat email saya rid.dhani@yahoo.com atau 081351464435
Ingin minta diajari tentang baca al-qur'an silakan kontak saya di alamat email saya rid.dhani@yahoo.com atau 081351464435
atau ingin antivirus avg silakan kontak saya di alamat email saya rid.dhani@yahoo.com atau 081351464435
atau ingin alat kesehatan rumah sakit dan puskesmas serta labolatorium silakan kontak saya di alamat email saya rid.dhani@yahoo.com atau 081351464435
semuanya ini kami tawarkan bukan untuk promosi, namun sebagai pengamalan dari ilmu yang telah saya dapatkan semasa saya di gontor dan di Pondok al-amanah Sulawesi Tenggara. "semua dengan harga terjangkau..."
Rabu, 03 November 2010
Kamis, 07 Oktober 2010
Sekedar Berbagi Ilmu tentang Cara Membaca Al-Qur'an dan jasa pengetikan
dengan biaya alakadarnya, dgn cara:
kirim sms dan ketik:
nama spasi nomor hp/kontak anda spasi daerah anda tinggal
Kirim ke Nomor 081251854943
Dapatkan tipsnya langsung di hp anda selama 1 minggu berturut-turut
adapun penaawaran lain dari kami adalah:
kami menawarkan jasa pengetikan teks atau naskah secara pribadi, bukan perusahaan komersil
yang berbahasa arab, indonsia, maupun inggris, dgn biaya alakadarnya juga...
dgn cara:
kirim sms dan ketik:
nama spasi nomor hp/kontak anda spasi daerah anda tinggal
Kirim ke Nomor 081251854943
sebelumnya kami meminta maaf bahwa nomor kami ini tidak dapat dihubungi secara telpon namun cukup di beri tahu lewat pesan sms.
demikianlah penawaran dari kami, semoga hal ini tercatat sebagai amal baik dari Allah ta'ala semata. Amien.
Kamis, 29 Juli 2010
Senin, 26 Juli 2010
Kamis, 20 Mei 2010
Kamis, 06 Mei 2010
Rabu, 05 Mei 2010
PONDOK PESANTREN MODERN PUTRA DARUSSALAM & PONDOK PESANTREN MODERN PUTRI AL-AMANAH LIABUKU BAU-BAU SULAWESI TENGGARA INDONESIA
Kamis, 08 April 2010
PONDOK MODEREN DARUSSALAM BAU-BAU SULAWESI TENGGARA
PROFIL SEKOLAH
Nama Sekolah : SMA Swasta Darussalam
Status : S w a s t a
Yayasan Pendiri :YAYASAN BADAN WAKAF PONDOK MODERN AL-AMANAH
Nama Pendiri : KH.M.SYAHRUDDIN SALEH,MA
Kepala Sekolah : RAMSUL HASSAN
Alamat Sekolah
Propinsi : Sulawesi Tenggara
Kabupaten/Kota : Bau-Bau
Kecamatan : Bungi
Kelurahan : Liabuku
SMA Swasta berdiri diatas tanah wakaf seluas + 2 hektar dan didirikan oleh KH.M.SYAHRUDDIN SALEH,MA pada tanggal 13 april 2006. Program belajar mengajar di mulai pada tanggal 16 agustus 2006 lembaga ini bernaung di bawah naungan Yayasan Badan Wakaf Pondok Modern Al-Amanah.
Karena Sekolah ini baru berdiri maka jumlah siswanyapun masih sedikit.
VISI, MISI DAN TUJUAN SEKOLAH
Visi Sekolah
Meningkatkan mutu pendidikan dan sumber daya manusia sehingga menghasilkan siswa yang berwawasan iptek, seni dan mental agar melanjutkan pembangunan bangsa dengan ciri ciri :
1. Unggul dalam berbahasa Arab dan Berbahasa Inggris
2. Unggul dalam prestasi Seni Baca Tulis Al-Qur'an.
3. Unggul dalam berdisiplin
4. Unggul dalam karya nyata.
5. Unggul dalam penguasaan teknologi.
6. Unggul dalam prestasi olahraga
7. Unggul dalam perolehan nilai UAN/UAS
Misi Sekolah
1. Melaksanakan proses kegiatan belajar mengajar dan bimbingan secara efektif, inofatif sehingga setiap siswa
berkembang secara optimal sesuai potensi yang dimilikinya.
2. Mendorong dan meningkatkan semangat siswa untuk mampu bersaing dan berpartisipasi dalam berbagai
kegiatan akademik, keagamaan, olahraga, seni dan kedisiplinan.
3. Mengefektifkan sarana prasarana secara optimal seperti laboratorium, perpustakaan, mushola dan sarana
olahraga.
4. Menciptakan wahana pembinaan bagi siswa untuk bisa berbahasa Inggris, Arab dan baca tulis Al-Qur'an.
5. Membimbing siswa untuk mematuhi tata tertib sekolah sehingga siswa terbiasa disiplin untuk bertindak.
Tujuan Sekolah
1. Meningkatkan kemampuan guru dalam penerapan pembelajaran dan penilaian.
2. Meningkatkan ketrampilan siswa dalam berbahasa Arab dan Berbahasa Inggris.
3. Meningkatkan Kemampuan siswa dalam khat dan Qiraah Al-Qur'an.
4. Meningatkan kemampuan siswa dalam penguasaan ilmu komputer.
5. Meningkatkan disiplin siswa.
6. Meningkatkan prestasi siswa dalam berolahraga.
Selasa, 06 April 2010
Profil Chemist (Profil Orang-orang Kimia)
Philip Hauge Abelson |
April 27th 1913 - August 1st 2004 |
Johann August Arfvedson |
January 12th 1792 - October 28th 1841 |
Johann was a Swedish chemist who was a student of the notable Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius. The rare mineral arvedsonite was named after him. |
Peter Armbruster |
July 25th 1931 - |
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Antoine-Jerome Balard |
September 30th 1802 - April 30th 1876 |
Jöns Jacob Berzelius |
August 20th 1779 - August 7th 1848 |
Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran |
April 18th 1838 - May 28th 1912 |
French discoverer of the elements gallium, samarium, and dysprosium. He also made contributions in the field of spectroscopy, including his experimentation with the rare-earth metals. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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1969 - |
Pierre Jules César Janssen |
February 22nd 1824 - December 23rd 1907 |
Ida Noddack Tacke was one of the first women in Germany to study chemistry. She attained a doctorate in 1919 at the technical university of Berlin "On higher aliphatic fatty acid anhydrides" and worked afterwards in the field being the first woman in the industry in Germany. She and her husband looked for the then still unknown elements 43 and 75 at the Physical Institute for Realm. In 1925, they published a paper (Zwei neue Elemente der Mangangruppe, Chemischer Teil) claiming to have done so, and called the new elements Rhenium and Masurium. Only the discovery of the rhenium was confirmed. They were unable to isolate any element 43 and their results were not reproducible. Their choice of the term Masurium was also considered unacceptably nationalistic and may have contributed to a poor reputation amongst scientists of the day. | |
A German chemist and physicist. With her husband Walter Noddack she discovered element 75, Rhenium. She correctly criticized Enrico Fermi's chemical proofs in his 1934 neutron bombardment experiments, from which he postulated that transuranic elements. might have been produced, and was widely accepted for a few years. Her paper, "On Element 93" suggested a number of possibilities, centering around Fermi's failure to chemically eliminate all lighter than uranium elements in his proofs, rather than only down to lead. The paper is considered historically significant today not simply because she correctly pointed out the flaw in Fermi's chemical proof but because she suggested the possibility that "it is conceivable that the nucleus breaks up into several large fragments, which would of course be isotopes of known elements but would not be neighbors of the irradiated element." | |
In so doing she presaged what would become known a few years later as nuclear fission. However Noddack offered no theoretical basis for this possibility, which defied the understanding at the time, and her suggestion that the nucleus breaks into several large fragments is not what occurs in nuclear fission. The paper was generally ignored. Later experiments along a similar line to Fermi's, by Irene Joliot-Curie, and Pavel Savitch in 1938 raised what they called "interpretational difficulties" when the supposed transuranics exhibited the properties of rare earths rather than those of adjacent elements. Ultimately in 1939 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, working in consultation with long term colleague Lise Meitner (who had been forced to flee Germany) provided chemical proof that the previously presumed transuranic elements were isotopes of barium. It remained for Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch utilizing Fritz Kalckar and Neils Bohr's liquid drop hypothesis (first proposed by George Gamow in 1935) to provide a theoretical model and mathematical proof of what they dubbed nuclear fission ( Frisch also experimentally verified the fission reaction by means of a cloud chamber, confirming the massive energy release). | |
Walter Noddack | |
August 17th 1893 - December 7th 1960 |
Noddack was born in Berlin and educated at the university there, obtaining his doctorate in 1920. He worked first at the Physikalische Technische Reichsanstadt, the German national physical laboratory, until 1935, and then held chairs in physical chemistry at Freiburg and Strasbourg until, in 1946, he moved to Bamberg. Noddack taught chemistry at the local Hochschule there before serving (1955-60) as the director of the Bamberg Institute of Geochemistry. |
In 1926, in collaboration with his wife Ida Tacke, Noddack discovered the element rhenium. They thought that they had found element 43, which they named 'masurium'. In fact this element was correctly identified in 1937 by Emilio Segre, who named it technetium. |
Noddack is also remembered for arguing for a concept he called allgegenwartskonzentration or, literally, omnipresent concentration. This idea, somewhat reminiscent of the early Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, assumed that every mineral actually contained every element. The reason they could not all be detected was, of course, because they existed in too small quantities. |
Hans Christian Oersted |
August 14th 1777 - March 9th 18 |
Oersted was born at Rudkjobing in Denmark and studied at Copenhagen University, where he received a PhD in 1799 for a thesis defending Kantian philosophy. To complete his scientific training he then traveled through Europe visiting the numerous physicists working on aspects of electricity. On his return to Denmark he started giving public lectures, which were so successful that, in 1806, he was offered a professorship at Copenhagen. Here he became well known as a great teacher and did much to raise the level of Danish science to that of the rest of Europe. | |
It was while lecturing that he actually first observed electromagnetism (although for years he had believed in its existence) by showing that a needle was deflected when brought close to a wire through which a current was flowing. By the summer of 1820 he had confirmed the existence of a circular magnetic field around the wire and published his results. They produced an enormous flurry of new activity in the scientific world, which up to that time had accepted Coulomb's opinion that electricity and magnetism were completely independent forces. | |
In 1825, Oersted made a significant contribution to chemistry by producing metallic aluminium for the first time. | |
Marguerite Catherine Perey | |
October 19th 1909 - May 13th 1975 |
A French physicist, discovered an element with atomic number 87 which she named francium in 1939 purifying lanthanum that contained actinium. Researchers had been looking for this element for years. | |
Joseph Priestley | |
March 13th 1733 - February 6th 1804 |
An English theologian and scientist. He prepared for the Presbyterian ministry and served several churches in England as pastor but gradually rejected orthodox Calvinism and adopted Unitarian views. His Essay on Government (1768) suggested the idea of "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" to Jeremy Bentham. In 1769 he founded the Theological Repository for critical discussion. In his History of Electricity (1767), he explained the rings (known as Priestley's rings) formed by a discharge upon a metallic surface. His improvements in the manipulation of gases enabled him to investigate the properties of gases and to discover new ones, including sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and what Priestly called "dephlogisticated air," the gas that Lavoisier named oxygen and made the basis of experiments that were the foundation of modern chemistry. Priestley himself failed to realize the importance of his discovery of oxygen. His Examination of Scottish Philosophy appeared in 1774; his History of the Corruptions of Christianity, published in 1782, was officially burned in 1785; and his History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ appeared in 1786. In 1790 he wrote two volumes of a General History of the Christian Church to the Fall of the Western Empire, and four volumes of the later history of the church appeared between 1802 and 1803. In the meantime he pursued his scientific and philosophical studies; opposed orthodox doctrines, the government's colonial policy, and slave trade; advocated the repeal of the Test Act and Corporation Act; and carried on a seven-year controversy (1783-90) with the Rev. Samuel Horsley. His sympathy with the aims of the French Revolution aroused popular prejudice against him, which led in 1791 to the wrecking of his house and the destroying of his library and scientific apparatus. Priestley emigrated to the United States in 1794 and lived at Northumberland, Pa., for the remainder of his life. He continued his chemical experimentation and engaged in a controversy on the phlogiston theory with leading American chemists. His Theological and Miscellaneous Works, in 25 volumes, edited by J. T. Rutt, were published between 1817 and 1832. |
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Sir William Ramsay |
(October 2nd 1852 - July 23rd 1916 |
A Scottish chemist. He was professor of chemistry at University College, Bristol (1880-87), and at University College, London (1887-1912). In his early experiments he showed that the alkaloids are related to pyridine, which he synthesized (1876) from acetylene and prussic acid. He then turned to inorganic and physical chemistry. Investigating the inert gases of the atmosphere, he discovered helium; with Rayleigh he discovered argon, and with M. W. Travers, krypton, neon, and xenon. He also carried on research on radium emanation. In 1902 he was knighted, for his work on gases he received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His writings include System of Inorganic Chemistry (1891) and Essays Biographical and Chemical (1908). | |
John William Strutt Rayleigh | |
November 12th 1842 - June 30th 1919 |
Rayleigh, born at Witham in Essex, succeeded to his father's title in 1873. He graduated in mathematics from Cambridge University in 1865 and remained at Cambridge until his marriage, in 1871, to Evelyn Balfour, sister of the statesman Lord Balfour. In the following year poor health, which had also disrupted his schooling as a child, necessitated a break from academic life and recuperation in a warmer climate. During this convalescence, which was spent traveling up the Nile in a houseboat, Rayleigh wrote The Theory of Sound, which remains a classic in writings on acoustics. | |
On his return to England, Rayleigh built a laboratory next to his family home. Apart from the period 1879-84, when he succeeded James Clerk Maxwell as Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge, Rayleigh carried out most of his work in this private laboratory. Of his early work the best known is his equation to account for the blue colour of the sky, which (confirming John Tyndall's theory) concerned light scattering by small particles in the atmosphere. The amount of scattering depends on the wavelength of the light, and this causes the blue colour. From this theory came the scattering law, an important concept in studies of wave propagation. Rayleigh also did a vast amount of work on other problems in physics, particularly in optics and acoustics. | |
While serving as Cavendish Professor, Rayleigh concerned himself with the precise measuring of electrical standards. He invented the Rayleigh potentiometer for precise measurement of potential difference. He extended this precision to the determination of the density of gases, and made the seemingly strange observation that nitrogen from air is always slightly denser than nitrogen obtained from a chemical compound. This led to his collaboration with William Ramsay that resulted in the discovery of argon. Rayleigh received the Nobel Prize for physics for this work in 1904; in the same year Ramsay was awarded the chemistry prize. | |
Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honor as well as a type of surface wave known as a Rayleigh wave. The asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named in his honour on 1 June 2007. | |
Ferdinand Reich | |
February 19th 1799 - April 27th 1882 |
Reich, who was born at Bernburg in Germany, studied at the University of Gottingen and taught at the Freiberg Mining Academy. In 1863 he obtained a yellow precipitate from some local zinc ores. Convinced that it contained a new element he asked his assistant Hieronymus Richter to examine it spectroscopically (he himself was colour blind). Richter found a new line in the dark blue region that confirmed Reich's original conviction; the new element was named 'indium' after the bright indigo line characteristic of its spectrum. | |
July 1st 1740 (or October 4th 1742) - October 12th 1825 |
He was born on the July 1, 1740 Nagyszeben (now, Sibiu) Transylvania, or 4 October 1742 in Poysdorf, (Lower Austria), and died on the October 12, 1825 in Vienna. | |
He studied philosophy in Vienna but became a specialist in mineralogy. | |
In 1778 he discovered an occurrence of Tourmaline in the Zillertal. | |
In 1782 or 1783, as the main overseer of mines in Romania, he analyzed a bluish gold ore from Transylvania known as 'German Gold'. He extracted a metal believing it to be antimony. Soon he verified that it was an unknown chemical element, however did not continue the research in relation to this new element. | |
In 1798, the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth isolated the new element and it called it Tellurium, but gave the credit of the discovery to the Franz-Joseph. | |
Hieronymous Theodor Richter | |
1824-1898 |
He was a German chemist who co-discovered indium in 1863 with Ferdinand Reich. He was born 21 November 1824 in Dresden and died 25 September 1898 in Freiberg. | |
Daniel Rutherford | |
November 3rd 1749 - November 15th 1819 |
A Scientist, born in Edinburgh, Rutherford was educated at the University of Edinburgh. As a student he discovered the gas Nitrogen (1772) and described oxygen or Vital Air (1778). In 1786, he was appointed to the Regius Chair of Botany in Edinburgh and as Keeper of the Botanic Gardens (1786), following the death of Professor John Hope (1725-86). Rutherford in turn held these posts until his own death. Rutherford was a maternal uncle of Sir Walter Scott (1771 - 1832). |
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Julius Caesar Scaliger |
April 23rd 1484 - October 21st 1558 |
an Italian scholar and physician spending a large part of his career in France. He employed the techniques and discoveries of Renaissance humanism to defend Aristotelianism against the new learning. In spite of his arrogant and contentious disposition, his contemporary reputation was high, judging him so distinguished by his learning and talents that, according to Jacques August de Thou, none of the ancients could be placed above him, and the age in which he lived could not show his equal. | |
So distinguished by his learning and talents that, according to Jacques August de Thou, none of the ancients could be placed above him and the age in which he lived could not show his equal. He was, according to his own account, a scion of the house of La Scala, for a hundred and fifty years princes of Verona, and was born in 1484 at the castle of La Rocca on the Lake Garda. | |
When he was twelve, his kinsman the emperor Maximilian placed him among his pages. He remained for seventeen years in the service of the emperor, distinguishing himself as a soldier and as a captain. But he was unmindful neither of letters, in which he had the most eminent scholars of the day as his instructors, nor of art, which he studied with considerable success under Albrecht Durer. | |
In 1512 at the battle of Ravenna, where his father and elder brother were killed, he displayed prodigies of valour, and received the highest honours of chivalry from his imperial cousin, who conferred upon him with his own hands the spurs, the collar and the eagle of gold. But this was the only reward he obtained. | |
He left the service of Maximilian, and after a brief employment by another kinsman, the duke of Ferrara, he decided to quit the military life, and in 1514 entered as a student at the university of Bologna. He determined to take holy orders, in the expectation that he would become cardinal, and then pope, when he would wrest from the Venetians his principality of Verona, of which the republic had despoiled his ancestors. But, though he soon gave up this design, he remained at the university until 1519. | |
The next six years he passed at the castle of Vico Nuovo, in Piedmont, as a guest of the family of La Rovere, at first dividing his time between military expeditions in the summer, and study, chiefly of medicine and natural history, in the winter, until a severe attack of rheumatic gout brought his military career to a close. | |
Henceforth his life was wholly devoted to study. In 1525 he accompanied MA de la Rovere, bishop of Agen, to that city as his physician. Such is the outline of his own account of his early life. It was not until some time after his death that the enemies of his son first alleged that he was not of the family of La Scala, but was the son of Benedetto Bordone, an illuminator or schoolmaster of Verona; that he was educated at Padua, where he took the degree of M.D.; and that his story of his life and adventures before arriving at Agen was a tissue of fables. It certainly is supported by no other evidence than his own statements, some of which are inconsistent with well-ascertained facts (see below). | |
The remaining thirty-two years of his life were passed almost wholly at Agen, in the full light of contemporary history. They were without adventure, almost without incident, but it was in them that he achieved so much distincton that at his death in 1558 he had the highest scientific and literary reputation of any man in Europe. A few days after his arrival at Agen he fell in love with a charming orphan of thirteen, Andiette de Roques Lobejac. Her friends objected to her marriage with an unknown adventurer, but in 1528 he had obtained so much success as a physician that the objections of her family were overcome, and at forty-five he married Andiette, who was then sixteen. The marriage proved a complete success; it was followed by twenty-nine years of almost uninterrupted happiness, and by the birth of fifteen children who included Joseph Justus Scaliger. | |
A charge of heresy in 1538, of which he was acquitted by his friendly judges, one of whom was his friend Arnoul Le Ferron, was almost the only event of interest during these years, except the publication of his books, and the quarrels and criticisms to which they gave rise. In 1531 he printed his first oration against Erasmus, in defence of Cicero and the Ciceronians. It is a piece of vigorous invective, displaying, like all his subsequent writings, an astonishing command of Latin, and much brilliant rhetoric, but full of vulgar abuse, and completely missing the point of the Ciceronianus of Erasmus. | |
The writer's indignation at finding it treated with silent contempt by the great scholar, who thought it was the work of a personal enemy--Meander--caused him to write a second oration, more violent, more abusive, with more self-glorification, but with less real merit than the first. The orations were followed by a prodigious quantity of Latin verse, which appeared in successive volumes in 1533, 1534, 1539, 1546 and 1547; of these, a friendly critic, Mark Pattison, is obliged to approve the judgment of Huet, who says, "par ses poesies brutes et informes Scaliger a deshonore le Parnasse"; yet their numerous editions show that they commended themselves not only to his contemporaries, but to succeeding scholars. A brief tract on comic metres (De comicis dimensionibus) and a work De causis linguae Latinae--the earliest Latin grammar on scientific principles and following a scientific method--were his only other purely literary works published in his lifetime. | |
His Poetice appeared in 1561 after his death. With many paradoxes, with many criticisms which are below contempt, and many indecent displays of personal animosity--especially in his reference to Etienne Dolet, over whose death he gloated with brutal malignity--it yet contains acute criticism, and showed for the first time what such a treatise ought to be, and how it ought to be written. | |
But it is as a philosopher and a man of science that JC Scaliger ought to be judged. Classical studies he regarded as an agreeable relaxation from severer pursuits. Whatever the truth or fable of the first forty years of his life, he had certainly been a close and accurate observer, and had made himself acquainted with many curious and little-known phenomena, which he had stored up in a most tenacious memory. | |
His scientific writings are all in the form of commentaries, and it was not until his seventieth year that (with the exception of a brief tract on the De insomniis of Hippocrates) he felt that any of them were sufficiently complete to be given to the world. In 1556 he printed his Dialogue on the De plantis attributed to Aristotle, and in 1557 his Exercitatioies on the work of Jerome Cardan, De subtilitate. His other scientific works, commentaries on Theophrastus' De causis plantarum and Aristotle's History of Animals, he left in a more or less unfinished state, and they were not printed until after his death. They are all marked by arrogant dogmatism, violence of language, a constant tendency to self-glorification, strangely combined with extensive real knowledge, with acute reasoning, with an observation of facts and details almost unparalleled. But he is only the naturalist of his own time. | |
That he anticipated in any manner the inductive philosophy cannot be contended; his botanical studies did not lead him, like his contemporary Konrad von Gesner, to any idea of a natural system of classification, and he rejected with the utmost arrogance and violence of language the discoveries of Copernicus. In metaphysics and in natural history Aristotle was a law to him, and in medicine Galen, but he was not a slave to the text or the details of either. He has thoroughly mastered their principles, and is able to see when his masters are not true to themselves. He corrects Aristotle by himself. | |
He is in that stage of learning when the attempt is made to harmonize the written word with the actual facts of nature, and the result is that his works have no real scientific value. Their interest is only historical. His Exercitationes upon the De subtilitate of Cardan (1551) is the book by which Scaliger is best known as a philosopher. Its numerous editions bear witness to its popularity, and until the final fall of Aristotle's physics it continued a popular textbook. We are astonished at the encyclopaedic wealth of knowledge which the Exercitationes display, at the vigour of the author's style, at the accuracy of his observations, but are obliged to agree with Gabriel Naude that he has committed more faults than he has discovered in Cardan, and with Charles Nisard that his object seems to be to deny all that Cardan affirms and to affirm all that Cardan denies. Yet Leibniz and Sir William Hamilton recognize him as the best modern exponent of the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle. He died at Agen on October 21, 1558. | |
Karl Wilhelm Scheele | |
December 9th 1742 - May 21st 1786 |
Scheele, who came from a poor background in Straslund (now in Germany), received little schooling and was apprenticed to an apothecary in Goteborg when he was 14 years old. In 1770 he moved to Uppsala to practice as an apothecary. He met and impressed Torbern Bergman, the professor of chemistry there, and was elected to the Stockholm Royal Academy of Sciences in 1775. Also in 1775 he moved to Koping where he established his own pharmacy. | |
In 1777 Scheele published his only book, Chemical Observations and Experiments on Air and Fire. In this work he stated that the atmosphere is composed of two gases, one supporting combustion, which he named 'fire air' (oxygen), and the other preventing it, which he named 'vitiated air' (nitrogen). He was successful in obtaining oxygen in about 1772, two years before Joseph Priestley. He also discovered chlorine, manganese, barium oxide, glycerol, silicon tetrafluoride, and a long list of acids, both organic and inorganic, including citric, prussic, and tartaric acids. One further piece of work that had unexpectedly important consequences was his demonstration of the effects of light on silver salts. | |
Despite receiving many lucrative offers from Germany and England, Scheele remained at Koping for the rest of his life devoting himself to his chemical researches. Although his work must have suffered from his isolation, and he lost priority in many discoveries owing to delay in publication, he is still frequently referred to as the greatest experimental chemist of the 18th century. | |
Johann Schroder | |
1600-1664 |
A German physician and pharmacologist who was the first person to recognise that arsenic was an element. In 1649, he produced the elemental form of arsenic by heating its oxide, and published two methods for its preparation. | |
Glenn Theodore Seaborg | |
(April 19th 1912 - February 25th 1999 |
American chemist, born in Ishpeming, Mich., graduated from the Univiversity of California at Los Angeles, 1934, Ph.D. Univiversity of California at Berkeley, 1937. In 1939, he began teaching at Berkeley, where he became professor of chemistry (1945) and chancellor of the university (1958). During World War II, he was associated with the Univ. of Chicago, where he worked on the development of the atomic bomb. After the war, Seaborg was named head of the nuclear chemistry division of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, later becoming director and then director emeritus of the laboratory. He served as chairman of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission from 1961 to 1971. Seaborg codiscovered the elements plutonium (and its isotope | |
For discoveries concerning the chemistry of transuranium elements, he shared with Edwin M. McMillan the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. For his discoveries of the transuranium elements and for his "leadership in the development of nuclear chemistry and atomic energy," Seaborg received the 1959 Enrico Fermi award. In 1997, the element with the atomic number 106 was named seaborgium in his honour, marking the first time an element was named for a living person. His writings include Nuclear Properties of the Heavy Elements (1964), Nuclear Milestones (1972), The Elements Beyond Uranium (1990), A Chemist in the White House: From the Manhattan Project to the End of the Cold War (1998), and The Transuranium People: The Inside Story (1999). | |
Nils Gabriel Sefstrüm | |
June 2nd 1787 - November 30th 1845 |
A Swedish chemist, Sefstrom, was a student of Berzelius and when studying the brittleness of steel, in 1830 he discovered a new chemical element, which he gave the name vanadium. | |
Emilio Gino Segre | |
February 1st 1905 - April 22nd 1989 |
An Italian physicist and Nobel laureate in physics, who with Owen Chamberlain, discovered antiprotons, a sub-atomic antiparticle. | |
Segre was born in Tivoli, near Rome, and enrolled in the University of Rome La Sapienza as an engineering student. He switched to physics in 1927 and earned his doctorate in 1928, having studied under Enrico Fermi. | |
After a stint in the Italian Army from 1928 to 1929, he worked with Otto Stern in Hamburg and Pieter Zeeman in Amsterdam as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow in 1930. Segre was appointed assistant professor of physics at the University of Rome in 1932 and served until 1936. From 1936 to 1938 he was Director of the Physics Laboratory at the University of Palermo. After a visit to Ernest O. Lawrence's Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, he was sent a molybdenum strip from the laboratory's cyclotron deflector in 1937 which was emitting anomalous forms of radioactivity. After careful chemical and theoretical analysis, Segre was able to prove that some of the radiation was being produced by a previously unknown element, dubbed technetium, and was the first artificially synthesized chemical element which does not occur in nature. | |
While Segre was on a summer visit to California in 1938, Mussolini's fascist government passed anti-Semitic laws barring Jews from university positions. As a Jew, Segre was now rendered an indefinite emigre. At the Berkeley Radiation Lab, Lawrence offered him a job as a Research Assistant -- a relatively lowly position for someone who had discovered an element -- for US$300 a month. However, in Segre's recollection, when Lawrence learned that Segre was legally trapped in California, he reduced his salary to US$116 a month which many, including Segre, saw as exploiting the situation. Segre also found work as a lecturer of the physics department at the University of California, Berkeley. | |
While at Berkeley, he helped discover the element astatine and the isotope plutonium-239. | |
From 1943 to 1946 he worked at the Los Alamos National Laboratory as a group leader for the Manhattan Project. In 1944, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He taught at Columbia University, University of Illinois and University of Rio de Janeiro. On his return to Berkeley in 1946, he became a professor of physics and of the history of science, serving until 1972. In 1974 he returned to the University of Rome as a professor of nuclear physics. | |
Frederick Soddy | |
September 2nd 1877 - September 22nd 1956 |
An English radiochemist. He worked under Lord Rutherford at McGill Univ. and with Sir William Ramsay at the Univ. of London. After serving (1910-14) as lecturer in physical chemistry and radioactivity at the Univ. of Glasgow, he was professor of chemistry at the Univ. of Aberdeen (1914-19) and at Oxford (1919-36). He was especially noted for his research in radioactivity. With others he discovered a relationship between radioactive elements and the parent compound, which led to his theory of isotopes; for this work he won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His scientific books have become classics and include The Interpretation of Radium (1909, rev. ed. 1922), Matter and Energy (1912), The Chemistry of the Radio-Elements (2 parts, 1911-14), and Atomic Transmutation (1953). An advocate of technocracy and of the social credit movement, he wrote several books setting forth his political and economic views. | |
In 1914 he was appointed to a chair at the University of Aberdeen, where he worked on research related to World War I. | |
In 1919 he moved to Oxford University as Dr Lee's Professor of Chemistry, where, in the period up till 1936, he reorganized the laboratories and the syllabus in chemistry. | |
He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his research in radioactive decay and particularly for his formulation of the theory of isotopes. | |
Jacques-Louis Soret | |
June 30th 1827 - May 13th 1890 |
He was a Swiss chemist who co-discovered holmium in 1878 with Marc Delafontaine and independently in 1879 with Per Teodor Cleve. | |
1776-1835 |
German born chemist. He studied mineralogy at Gottingen (where he went on to become professor of chemistry) and Paris. He discovered the element Cadmium. | |
Fausto de Elhuyar y de Suvisa | |
October 11th 1755 - February 6th 1833 |
He was Spanish chemist, and the joint discoverer of tungsten with his brother Juan Jose Elhuyar in 1783. | |
He was born in Logrono, and died in Madrid. | |
Smithson Tennant | |
November 30th 1761 - February 22nd 1815 |
English chemist. In 1796 he proved, by burning a diamond, that the diamond consists solely of carbon. In 1804 he announced his discovery of osmium and iridium. | |
Tennant was born in Selby in Yorkshire. He began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1781, but in a few months moved to Cambridge, where he devoted himself to botany and chemistry. He graduated M.D. at Cambridge in 1790, and about the same time purchased an estate near Cheddar, where he carried out agricultural experiments. He was appointed professor of chemistry at Cambridge in 1813, but lived to deliver only one course of lectures, being killed near Boulogne-sur-Mer by the fall of a bridge over which he was riding. | |
The mineral Tennantite is named after him. | |
Louis Jacques Thenard | |
May 4th 1777 - June 21st 1857 |
His father, a poor peasant, managed to have him educated at the academy of Sens, and sent him at the age of sixteen to study pharmacy in Paris. There he attended the lectures of Antoine Francois Fourcroy and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, and succeeded in gaining admission, in a humble capacity, to the latter's laboratory. But his progress was so rapid that in two or three years he was able to take his master's place at the lecture-table, and Fourcroy and Vauquelin were so satisfied with his performance that they procured for him a school appointment in 1797 as teacher of chemistry, and in 1798 one as repetiteur at the Ecole Polytechnique. | |
In 1804 Vauquelin resigned his professorship at the College de France and successfully used his influence to obtain the appointment for Thenard, who six years later, after Fourcroy's death, was further elected to the chairs of chemistry at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Faculte des Sciences. He also succeeded Fourcroy as member of the Academy. In 1825 he received the title of baron from Charles X, and in 1832 Louis Philippe made him a peer of France. From 1827 to 1830 he represented the departement of Yonne in the chamber of deputies, and as vice-president of the conseil superieur de l'instruction publique, he exercised a great influence on scientific education in France. He died in Paris on the 21st of June 1857. A statue was erected to his memory at Sens in 1861, and in 1865 the name of his native village was changed to La Louptiere-Thenard. | |
Above all things Thenard was a teacher; as he himself said, the professor, the assistants, the laboratory - everything must be sacrificed to the students. Like most great teachers he published a textbook, and his Traite de chimie elementaire, theorique et pratique (4 vols., Paris, 181316), which served as a standard for a quarter of a century, perhaps did even more for the advance of chemistry than his numerous original discoveries. | |
Soon after his appointment as repetiteur at the Ecole Polytechnique he began a lifelong friendship with Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and the two carried out many researches together. Careful analysis led him to dispute some of Claude Louis Berthollet's theoretical views regarding the composition of the metallic oxides, and he also showed Berthollet's "zoonic acid" to be impure acetic acid (1802). In response, Berthollet invited him to become a member of the Societe d'Arcueil. | |
His first original paper (1799) was on the compounds of arsenic and antimony with oxygen and sulphur. In 1807, he began important research into ethers. His researches on sebacic acid (1802) and on bile (1807) deserve mention as well, as does his discovery of hydrogen peroxide (1818). In 1799 he developed the pigment known as Thenard's blue in response to a request by Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal for a cheap colouring matter. | |
Morris Travers | |
1872-1961 |
Morris Travers was an English chemist who discovered xenon, neon and krypton with Sir William Ramsay. | |
In 1920 he became involved with high-temperature furnaces and fuel technology, including the gasification of coal. | |
Travers helped Ramsay to determine the properties of the newly discovered gases argon and helium. They also heated minerals and meteorites in the search for further gases, but found none. Then in 1898 they obtained a large quantity of liquid air and subjected it to fractional distillation. Spectral analysis of the least volatile fraction revealed the presence of krypton. They examined the argon fraction for a constituent of lower boiling point, and discovered neon. Finally xenon, occurring as an even less volatile companion to krypton, was identified spectroscopically. Travers continued his researches in cryogenics and made the first accurate temperature measurements of liquid gases. He also helped to build several experimental liquid air plants in Europe. | |
Georges Urbain | |
April 12th 1872 - November 5th 1938 |
In 1878, the Swiss chemist Jean Charles de Marignac separated a new substance from the rare earth elements and named it ytterbium. In 1907 and 1908, however, the French chemist Georges Urbain and the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach independently separated Marignac's | |
Louis Nicolas Vauquelin | |
May 16th 1763 - November 14th 1829 |
The son of a farm laborer from Saint-Andre d'Hebertot in France, Vauquelin began work as an apprentice to a Rouen apothecary. He became a laboratory assistant to Antoine-Francois Fourcroy (1783-91), with whom he later collaborated. Vauquelin became a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1791 and professor of chemistry in the School of Mines in 1795. In 1799 he wrote Manuel de l'essayeur (An Assayer's Manual), which led to his being appointed assayer to the mint in 1802 and professor of chemistry at the University of Paris in 1809. | |
Vauquelin is best known for his discovery of the elements chromium and beryllium. In 1798, while working with a red lead mineral from Siberia known as crocolite, he isolated the new element chromium - so called because its compounds are very highly coloured. Martin Klaproth made a similar discovery shortly afterward. In the same year Vauquelin also isolated a new element in the mineral beryl. It was initially called glucinum because of the sweetness of its compounds, but later given its modern name of beryllium. He was the first to isolate an amino acid: asparagine from asparagus. | |
September 8th 1917 - March 6th 2006 |
An American physicist who, as a graduate student in February 1941, was the first to isolate plutonium in a laboratory. He also worked on the Manhattan Project. | |
Carl Auer Baron von Welsbach | |
September 1st 1858 - August 4th 1929 |
An Austrian chemist, he discovered the rare earth elements | |
Clemens Alexander Winkler | |
December 26th 1838 - October 1904 |
Winkler was born at Freiberg in Germany and studied at the School of Mines there. He was later appointed to the chair of chemical technology and analytical chemistry at Freiberg in 1871. | |
In 1885 a new ore - argyrodite - was discovered in the local mines. Winkler, who had a considerable reputation as an analyst, was asked to examine it and to his surprise the results of his analysis consistently came out too low. He discovered that this was due to the presence of a new element, which, after several months' search, he isolated and named germanium after his fatherland. The properties of germanium matched those of the eka-silicon whose existence had been predicted in 1871 by Dmitri Mendeleev. Winkler's discovery completed the detection of the three new elements predicted by Mendeleev nearly 20 years before. | |
Friedrich Wöhler | |
July 31st 1800 - September 23rd 1882 |
German physician and chemist, who became a professor of chemistry at Gottingen. | |
In 1828 he made his best-known discovery, the synthesis of urea (an organic compound) from ammonium cyanate (an inorganic salt). This finally disproved the assertion that organic substances can be formed only in living things. Wöhler also isolated aluminium (1827), beryllium (1828), and yttrium (1828). | |
William Hyde Wollaston | |
August 6th 1766 - December 2nd 1828 |
Wollaston, the son of a clergyman from East Dereham in Norfolk, was educated at Cambridge University, England, where he graduated in 1788. He practiced as a physician before moving to London (1801) to devote himself to science, working in a variety of fields, including chemistry, physics, and astronomy, and making several important discoveries, both theoretical and practical. |
Wollaston made himself financially independent by inventing, in 1804, a process to produce pure malleable platinum, which could be welded and made into vessels. He is reported to have made about 30,000 pounds from his discovery, as he kept the process secret until shortly before his death, allowing no one to enter his laboratory. Working with platinum ore, he also isolated two new elements: palladium (1804), named for the recently discovered asteroid Pallas, and rhodium (1805), named for the rose colour of its compounds. In 1810 he discovered the second amino acid, cystine, in a bladder stone. |
In optics Wollaston developed the reflecting goniometer (1809), an instrument for the measurement of angles between the faces of a crystal. He also patented the camera lucida in 1807. In this device an adjustable prism reflects light from the object to be drawn and light from the paper into the draftsman's eye. This produces the illusion of the image on the paper, allowing him to trace it. Wollaston was a friend of Thomas Young and a supporter of the wave theory of light. One opportunity he missed occurred when, in 1802, he observed the dark lines in the solar spectrum but failed to grasp their importance, taking them simply to be the natural boundaries of colours. He missed a similar chance in 1820 when he failed to pursue the full implications of Hans Oersted's 1820 demonstration that an electric current could cause a deflection in a compass needle. Although he performed some experiments it was left to Michael Faraday in 1821 to discover and analyze electromagnetic rotation. Wollaston was successful in showing that frictional and galvanic electricity were identical in 1801. In 1814 he proposed the term 'chemical equivalents'. |